The Necessity Of Positive And Normative Economics Essays

The Necessity Of Positive And Normative Economics Keynes once wrote: The object of a positive science is the establishment of uniformities, of a normative science the determination of ideals. (Blaug, 122) This is the dichotomy that economists recognize when approaching their field of study. The social scientist must recognize both positive and normative distinctions, means and ends, as important factors of fruitful research. Secondly, they must clearly express the conditions and assumption which theories holds in order for economics to be useful for society. Positive science is that which is a fact of nature or a fact by definition. In mathematics this is the difference between the knowledge that the angles of a triangle sum to 180 degrees, and the definition of a triangle as a two dimensional polygon with 3 sides. In economics, such facts of knowledge include that money is a store of value, or facts of definition that the UNs Human Development Index ranks Canada above Mexico. These are all positive facts. Whether they rely or are associated with values does not reduce their factualness to a normative realm. One cannot refute positive statements by claiming they are arrived at due to values. It is up to normative science to judge the value of the HDI, a positive fact, and not mistake this action as denying the existence of the HDI. This is probably better stated with a topic from macroeconomics. Suppose that some economists agree that inflation produces the social cost of having to adjust prices to new levels. This is a completely positive statement. As long as every term has been clearly defined, one can understand the relation between inflation (as defined) and cost (as defined). Yes, the definitions have been chosen based on specific values, but this does not disaffirm the statement as a true reflection of reality. Suppose we make a true statement which denies that inflation produces this social cost, by defining inflation or the cost differently. The old positive fact of reality that the first statement asserted has not changed. By changing definitions, we have merely created a new positive statement. A statement is a true positive fact, according to Weston, when it is consistent with definitions and axioms that define the system. We are not necessarily saying anything about what is true outside of that sys tem. (Weston, 4) The values we have based each statement on does not induce them into the sphere of normative science. Neither makes any statement concerning the values of inflation or costs, nor that one statement is preferable over the other. Here lies the duty of the economist: to make a normative decision on which positive statements are most applicable to the needs of society. Do we want to evaluate policy based on inflation definition number one or two? Do we care about social cost one more than social cost two? These are in the scope of normative science. Effectual positive facts are the means in reality to achieve ends. In this manner, economics is not value-free, and for good reason. There must be some utility gained from knowledge for research to be beneficial to mankind. Positive facts are not study for the sake of learning positive facts, but as a possible means to an end. Normative economics are those value statements which guide our use and development of positive science. Positive facts are not limited by our values, but we can use our values to determine which positive statements are of most interest to society. Positive statements are the basis for any science, but do little good for mankind if we do not evaluate and distinguish some statements as more useful than others. Thus positive science is made fruitful through normative values, and reciprocally, normative judgments are based on objective positive science. It is best to demonstrate this with an example from a less controversial science, physics. If a physicist decides that we need to further study thermodynamics in a specific way because of the needs of applications in space, his approach is a normative decision based on the normative desires of some group of people. However, the results which he arrives at will remain true for the conditions and viewpoint specified, despite the value to the space industry, which may

Free Essays on Galileo Galilei

Brecht’s famous play Galileo Galilei is about the famous scientist of the Renaissance age, Galileo. Galileo tried to show the church that the copernican system is actually true; however the church accepted the Aristotle’s way of thought and therefore the inventions Galileo announced were considered as a blasphemy to the Bible. This is the basic story of Galileo; however Brecht tried to find out what is humane behind this story. Beginning from the facts, he created a totally dramatic play which shows the reader the way Galileo felt when he was making those discoveries. He also opened a debate on the conflict between the search for truth in science and religious authority. The first scene starts with Galileo’s talking with Andrea. While explaining him about the copernican system, Ludovico comes and shows him a telescope. The telescope impresses Galileo much, so he starts to work on it. The first scene also gives us background information on Italy and the economic system. Galileo perfects the telescope, however the idea is stolen from Ludovico and invention is stolen, so it is plagiarism. However we feel not so bad about Galileo in that scene, because we see that he thought about the telescope and he is aware that it is a plagiarism. By the help of telescope, Galileo finds out that the Copernican ideal on universe is actually true so he writes to the court in Florence. The main idea here is the danger of truth and the curator in the museum finds out about the plagiarism. In the court he had a debate with the aristocrats on his new discoveries and that scene shows us that the aristocrats fear from the truth, because they are part of a world that has not been existing for sometime. the age is Renaissance and it is the age of reason. In scene 6, Brecht questions whether man must find all the answers to the questions in the Universe. Are we really individuals?, who are the center of the universe? or are we the best fruits of... Free Essays on Galileo Galilei Free Essays on Galileo Galilei Brecht’s famous play Galileo Galilei is about the famous scientist of the Renaissance age, Galileo. Galileo tried to show the church that the copernican system is actually true; however the church accepted the Aristotle’s way of thought and therefore the inventions Galileo announced were considered as a blasphemy to the Bible. This is the basic story of Galileo; however Brecht tried to find out what is humane behind this story. Beginning from the facts, he created a totally dramatic play which shows the reader the way Galileo felt when he was making those discoveries. He also opened a debate on the conflict between the search for truth in science and religious authority. The first scene starts with Galileo’s talking with Andrea. While explaining him about the copernican system, Ludovico comes and shows him a telescope. The telescope impresses Galileo much, so he starts to work on it. The first scene also gives us background information on Italy and the economic system. Galileo perfects the telescope, however the idea is stolen from Ludovico and invention is stolen, so it is plagiarism. However we feel not so bad about Galileo in that scene, because we see that he thought about the telescope and he is aware that it is a plagiarism. By the help of telescope, Galileo finds out that the Copernican ideal on universe is actually true so he writes to the court in Florence. The main idea here is the danger of truth and the curator in the museum finds out about the plagiarism. In the court he had a debate with the aristocrats on his new discoveries and that scene shows us that the aristocrats fear from the truth, because they are part of a world that has not been existing for sometime. the age is Renaissance and it is the age of reason. In scene 6, Brecht questions whether man must find all the answers to the questions in the Universe. Are we really individuals?, who are the center of the universe? or are we the best fruits of... Free Essays on Galileo Galilei GALILEO’S LIFE AND HIS CONTRIBUTION TO ASTRONOMY Galileo was an Italian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. Galileo Galilei was born near Pisa, Italy, on February 15, 1564. Galileo was the first child of Vincezio Galilei, a talented musician, and Giulia degli Ammannati. In 1574, Galileo’s family moved from Pisa to Florence, where Galileo started his formal education (Drake, 1978). Seven years latter, in 1581, Galileo entered the University of Pisa as a medical student. In 1584, home on vacation from medical school, Galileo began to study mathematics and physical sciences. A Family friend and professor at the Academy of Design, Ostilio Ricci, worked on translating some of Archimedes, which Galileo read and became interested in. This is where Galileo got his deep interest in Archimedes (Shea, 1972). When returning to medical school, medical school became less appealing to Galileo, and his deep interests in Archimedes and mathematics drew him in, Galileo left without a degree in the spring of 1585 (Drake, 1978). Starting his studies, in 1585, in Aristotelian physics and cosmology, Galileo had to leave the University of Pisa before he got his degree, because of financial problems. Galileo became renowned in 1588, when he gave a lecture at the Florentine Academy on the topography of Dante’s Inferno, where he showed his extensive knowledge on mathematics and geometry. In 1589, Galileo’s rising reputation as a mathematician, earned him a teaching position at the University of Pisa (Sharratt, 1994). Galileo spent three years at the University of Pisa. His position required him to teach astronomy based on Ptolemy’s theory that all planets and the sun revolved around the earth. At Pisa, Galileo was in conflict with many other professors and various disputes seem to have made him despair of advancement in the University. In 1591, Galileo’s father died and this increased his financial responsibilities, when in 1952 he res...

Critique and Analysis Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique and Analysis - Coursework Example Dancing in public is a challenge to many students. The teacher assures the student that by listening and following the lesson they will not have to worry about dancing in public. They get the assurance that if they listen they will be able to impress their fellow student and dates. How to act in public so as to impress others and to avoid embarrassing oneself are is a key challenge to while learning how to behave in social spheres. Therefore, the teacher’s choice to use these factors to motivate the students to listen was an effective teaching skill. It was an effective choice because it addressed an issue the students faced. I would suggest a situational example to emphasize further the importance of the lesson. The lesson was well organized. The introduction shows the intended plan to achieve the goal of the lesson. The body is well organized and systematic. The students start by learning what rhythm is and how to recognize it in music. They then learn about movement and eventually how to incorporate rhythm and movement to make a dance. The conclusion restates the purpose of the lesson and relates it to an actual event in the lives of the students. The systematic organization was effective. The teacher involves the student actively from the introduction of the lesson by asking the students questions. The teacher keeps asking questions through the lesson to determine if the students understand the topic. To ensure participation, the teacher applies a random sampling technique. The lesson also involves a class dance routine involving all the students. The teacher’s techniques were effective in involving the students in the lesson. Particularly the dance routine that the students had to learn. The random sampling technique used to ensure participation was effective since it keeps the students alert and aware that they all had to participate. The teacher chooses to